Psilocybin therapy for mood dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: open-label trial

3 months ago 3

References

  1. Costa HN, Esteves AR, Empadinhas N, Cardoso SM. Parkinson’s disease: a multisystem disorder. Neurosci Bull. 2023;39:113–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Dorsey ER, Elbaz A, Nichols E, Abd-Allah F, Abdelalim A, Adsuar JC, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of Parkinson’s disease, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2018;17:939–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Jellinger KA. Neuropathology of nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Int. Rev. Neurobiol., vol. 133, Elsevier; 2017. p. 13–62.

  4. Schapira AHV, Chaudhuri KR, Jenner P. Non-motor features of Parkinson disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2017;18:435–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Weintraub D, Moberg PJ, Duda JE, Katz IR, Stern MB. Effect of psychiatric and other nonmotor symptoms on disability in Parkinson’s disease. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:784–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Bega D, Luo S, Fernandez H, Chou K, Aminoff M, Parashos S, et al. Impact of depression on progression of impairment and disability in early Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord Clin Pr. 2015;2:371–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Schrag A, Siddiqui UF, Anastasiou Z, Weintraub D, Schott JM. Clinical variables and biomarkers in prediction of cognitive impairment in patients with newly diagnosed Parkinson’s disease: a cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16:66–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. van Uem JMT, Marinus J, Canning C, van Lummel R, Dodel R, Liepelt-Scarfone I, et al. Health-related quality of life in patients with Parkinson’s disease—A systematic review based on the ICF model. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;61:26–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Seppi K, Ray Chaudhuri K, Coelho M, Fox SH, Katzenschlager R, Perez Lloret S, et al. Update on treatments for nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease-an evidence-based medicine review. Mov Disord J Mov Disord Soc. 2019;34:180–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Goodwin GM, Aaronson ST, Alvarez O, Arden PC, Baker A, Bennett JC, et al. Single-dose psilocybin for a treatment-resistant episode of major depression. N. Engl J Med. 2022;387:1637–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Raison CL, Sanacora G, Woolley J, Heinzerling K, Dunlop BW, Brown RT, et al. Single-dose psilocybin treatment for major depressive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;330:843–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, Umbricht A, Richards WA, Richards BD, et al. Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. J Psychopharmacol Oxf Engl. 2016;30:1181–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Ross S, Bossis A, Guss J, Agin-Liebes G, Malone T, Cohen B, et al. Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf). 2016;30:1165–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Nichols DE. Psychedelics. Pharm Rev. 2016;68:264–355.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Dinis-Oliveira RJ. Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance. Drug Metab Rev. 2017;49:84–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC. Therapeutic use of serotoninergic hallucinogens: a review of the evidence and of the biological and psychological mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020;108:423–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Ly C, Greb AC, Cameron LP, Wong JM, Barragan EV, Wilson PC, et al. Psychedelics promote structural and functional neural plasticity. Cell Rep. 2018;23:3170–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Olson DE. Psychoplastogens: a promising class of plasticity-promoting neurotherapeutics. J Exp Neurosci. 2018;12:1179069518800508.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Szabo A. Psychedelics and immunomodulation: novel approaches and therapeutic opportunities. Front Immunol. 2015;6:358.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Calder AE, Hasler G. Towards an understanding of psychedelic-induced neuroplasticity. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2023;48:104–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Jellinger KA. The pathobiological basis of depression in Parkinson disease: challenges and outlooks. J Neural Transm. 2022;129:1397–418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Faivre F, Joshi A, Bezard E, Barrot M. The hidden side of Parkinson’s disease: studying pain, anxiety and depression in animal models. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;96:335–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Maillet A, Krack P, Lhommée E, Météreau E, Klinger H, Favre E, et al. The prominent role of serotonergic degeneration in apathy, anxiety and depression in de novo Parkinson’s disease. Brain J Neurol. 2016;139:2486–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Galts CPC, Bettio LEB, Jewett DC, Yang CC, Brocardo PS, Rodrigues ALS, et al. Depression in neurodegenerative diseases: common mechanisms and current treatment options. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;102:56–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Mendonça IP, Duarte-Silva E, Chaves-Filho AJM, Andrade da Costa BL, da S, Peixoto CA. Neurobiological findings underlying depressive behavior in Parkinson’s disease: A review. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;83:106434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Passie T, Seifert J, Schneider U, Emrich HM. The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addict Biol. 2002;7:357–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Jain S, Goldstein DS. Cardiovascular dysautonomia in Parkinson disease: from pathophysiology to pathogenesis. Neurobiol Dis. 2012;46:572–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Rickli A, Moning OD, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Receptor interaction profiles of novel psychoactive tryptamines compared with classic hallucinogens. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol J Eur Coll Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26:1327–37.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Huot P, Fox SH. The serotonergic system in motor and non-motor manifestations of Parkinson’s disease. Exp Brain Res. 2013;230:463–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Forsaa EB, Larsen JP, Wentzel-Larsen T, Goetz CG, Stebbins GT, Aarsland D, et al. A 12-year population-based study of psychosis in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2010;67:996–1001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Pagonabarraga J, Martinez-Horta S, Fernández de Bobadilla R, Pérez J, Ribosa-Nogué R, Marín J, et al. Minor hallucinations occur in drug-naive Parkinson’s disease patients, even from the premotor phase. Mov Disord J Mov Disord Soc. 2016;31:45–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Geyer MA, Vollenweider FX. Serotonin research: contributions to understanding psychoses. Trends Pharm Sci. 2008;29:445–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Simonsson O, Mosing MA, Osika W, Ullén F, Larsson H, Lu Y, et al. Adolescent psychedelic use and psychotic or manic symptoms. JAMA Psychiatry. 2024. 13 March 2024. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.0047.

  34. Simonsson O, Goldberg SB, Chambers R, Osika W, Simonsson C, Hendricks PS Psychedelic use and psychiatric risks. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2023. 24 October 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-023-06478-5.

  35. Barber G, Nemeroff CB, Siegel S. A case of prolonged mania, psychosis, and severe depression after psilocybin use: implications of increased psychedelic drug availability. Am J Psychiatry. 2022;179:892–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Ballanger, Strafella B, Eimeren AP, van T, Zurowski M, Rusjan PM, et al. Serotonin 2A receptors and visual hallucinations in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2010;67:416–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Meltzer HY, Mills R, Revell S, Williams H, Johnson A, Bahr D, et al. Pimavanserin, a serotonin(2A) receptor inverse agonist, for the treatment of parkinson’s disease psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacol Publ Am Coll Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010;35:881–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Doder M, Rabiner EA, Turjanski N, Lees AJ, Brooks DJ. 11C-WAY 100635 PET study. Tremor in Parkinson’s disease and serotonergic dysfunction: an 11C-WAY 100635 PET study. Neurology. 2003;60:601–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Gordon PH, Pullman SL, Louis ED, Frucht SJ, Fahn S. Mirtazapine in Parkinsonian tremor. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2002;9:125–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kohl Z, Winkler J Chapter 50 - Serotonin in Parkinson’s disease. In: Müller CP, Cunningham KA, editors. Handb. Behav. Neurosci., vol. 31, Elsevier; 2020. p. 969-79.

  41. Nicholson SL, Brotchie JM. 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) and Parkinson’s disease – opportunities for novel therapeutics to reduce the problems of levodopa therapy. Eur J Neurol. 2002;9:1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Pagano G, Niccolini F, Fusar-Poli P, Politis M. Serotonin transporter in Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis of positron emission tomography studies. Ann Neurol. 2017;81:171–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Grandjean J, Buehlmann D, Buerge M, Sigrist H, Seifritz E, Vollenweider FX, et al. Psilocybin exerts distinct effects on resting state networks associated with serotonin and dopamine in mice: Psilocybin affects resting-state networks in mice. NeuroImage. 2021;225:117456.

  44. Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA. 2014;311:1670–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub; 2013.

  46. Wooten GF. Agonists vs levodopa in PD. Neurology. 2003;60:360–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Johnson M, Richards W, Griffiths R. Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J Psychopharmacol Oxf Engl. 2008;22:603–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Kirlić N, Lennard-Jones M, Atli M, Malievskaia E, Modlin NL, Peck SK, et al. Compass psychological support model for COMP360 psilocybin treatment of serious mental health conditions. Am J Psychiatry. 2025;182:126–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Dittrich A. The standardized psychometric assessment of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) in humans. Pharmacopsychiatry. 1998;31:80–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Rodriguez-Blazquez C, Rojo-Abuin JM, Alvarez-Sanchez M, Arakaki T, Bergareche-Yarza A, Chade A, et al. The MDS-UPDRS Part II (motor experiences of daily living) resulted useful for assessment of disability in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2013;19:889–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Lang AE, Eberly S, Goetz CG, Stebbins G, Oakes D, Marek K, et al. Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale experiences in daily living: Longitudinal changes and correlation with other assessments. Mov Disord. 2013;28:1980–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Goetz CG, Tilley BC, Shaftman SR, Stebbins GT, Fahn S, Martinez-Martin P, et al. Movement Disorder Society-sponsored revision of the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS): scale presentation and clinimetric testing results. Mov Disord J Mov Disord Soc. 2008;23:2129–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Posner K, Brown GK, Stanley B, Brent DA, Yershova KV, Oquendo MA, et al. The Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale: initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168:1266–77.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Kulick CV, Montgomery KM, Nirenberg MJ. Comprehensive identification of delusions and olfactory, tactile, gustatory, and minor hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2018;54:40–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Voss T, Bahr D, Cummings J, Mills R, Ravina B, Williams H. Performance of a shortened Scale for Assessment of Positive Symptoms for Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2013;19:295–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. CANTAB® [Cognitive assessment software]. 2019. 2019.

  57. Cools R, Barker RA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. Mechanisms of cognitive set flexibility in Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 2001;124:2503–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Merriam EP, Thase ME, Haas GL, Keshavan MS, Sweeney JA. Prefrontal cortical dysfunction in depression determined by wisconsin card sorting test performance. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:780–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Peterson DA, Elliott C, Song DD, Makeig S, Sejnowski TJ, Poizner H. Probabilistic reversal learning is impaired in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience. 2009;163:1092–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Waegeman A, Declerck CH, Boone C, Seurinck R, Parizel PM. Individual differences in behavioral flexibility in a probabilistic reversal learning task: An fMRI study. J Neurosci Psychol Econ. 2014;7:203–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Kaufer DI, Cummings JL, Ketchel P, Smith V, MacMillan A, Shelley T, et al. Validation of the NPI-Q, a brief clinical form of the Neuropsychiatric Inventory. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;12:233–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Montgomery SA, Asberg M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci. 1979;134:382–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Maier W, Buller R, Philipp M, Heuser I. The Hamilton Anxiety Scale: reliability, validity and sensitivity to change in anxiety and depressive disorders. J Affect Disord. 1988;14:61–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Carhart-Harris R, Giribaldi B, Watts R, Baker-Jones M, Murphy-Beiner A, Murphy R, et al. Trial of psilocybin versus escitalopram for depression. N. Engl J Med. 2021;384:1402–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Holden SK, Finseth T, Sillau SH, Berman BD. Progression of MDS‐UPDRS scores over five years in de novo Parkinson disease from the Parkinson’s progression markers initiative cohort. Mov Disord Clin Pr. 2017;5:47–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. McGlothlin AE, Lewis RJ. Minimal clinically important difference: defining what really matters to patients. JAMA. 2014;312:1342–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Horváth K, Aschermann Z, Ács P, Deli G, Janszky J, Komoly S, et al. Minimal clinically important difference on the Motor Examination part of MDS-UPDRS. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2015;21:1421–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Horváth K, Aschermann Z, Kovács M, Makkos A, Harmat M, Janszky J, et al. Minimal clinically important differences for the experiences of daily living parts of movement disorder society-sponsored unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale. Mov Disord J Mov Disord Soc. 2017;32:789–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Hengartner MP, Plöderl M. Estimates of the minimal important difference to evaluate the clinical significance of antidepressants in the acute treatment of moderate-to-severe depression. BMJ Evid-Based Med. 2022;27:69–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Fan J, Lu W, Tan W, Liu X, Wang Y, Wang N, et al. Effectiveness of acupuncture for anxiety among patients with Parkinson disease: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5:e2232133.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Breeksema JJ, Kuin BW, Kamphuis J, van den Brink W, Vermetten E, Schoevers RA. Adverse events in clinical treatments with serotonergic psychedelics and MDMA: A mixed-methods systematic review. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf). 2022;36:1100–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. McDaniels B, Pontone GM, Keener AM, Subramanian I. A prescription for wellness in early PD: just what the doctor ordered. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2023:08919887231164358.

  73. Doss MK, Považan M, Rosenberg MD, Sepeda ND, Davis AK, Finan PH, et al. Psilocybin therapy increases cognitive and neural flexibility in patients with major depressive disorder. Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11:1–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Torrado Pacheco A, Olson RJ, Garza G, Moghaddam B Acute psilocybin enhances cognitive flexibility in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2023;48:1011–20.

  75. Vollenweider FX, Vontobel P, Hell D, Leenders KL. 5-HT modulation of dopamine release in basal ganglia in psilocybin-induced psychosis in man—A PET study with [11 C]raclopride. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;20:424–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Jiang L-L, Wu Y-L, Mo Y, Gou L, Chen M-L, Wang Y, et al. The effects of paroxetine therapy on depressive symptom and motor function in the treatment of depression with Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Med (Balt). 2023;102:e34687.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Takamiya A, Seki M, Kudo S, Yoshizaki T, Nakahara J, Mimura M, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Mov Disord. 2021;36:50–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Birkett DP. Electroconvulsive therapy and Parkinson’s disease. Clin Gerontol. 1991;10:11–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Szymkowicz SM, Gerlach AR, Homiack D, Taylor WD. Biological factors influencing depression in later life: role of aging processes and treatment implications. Transl Psychiatry. 2023;13:1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Byers AL, Yaffe K. Depression and risk of developing dementia. Nat Rev Neurol. 2011;7:323–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Brown PJ, Rutherford BR, Yaffe K, Tandler JM, Ray JL, Pott E, et al. The depressed frail phenotype: the clinical manifestation of increased biological aging. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;24:1084–94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Lin C-H, Lin J-W, Liu Y-C, Chang C-H, Wu R-M. Risk of Parkinson’s disease following anxiety disorders: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Eur J Neurol. 2015;22:1280–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Schapira AHV, Tolosa E. Molecular and clinical prodrome of Parkinson disease: implications for treatment. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010;6:309–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Shiba M, Bower JH, Maraganore DM, McDonnell SK, Peterson BJ, Ahlskog JE, et al. Anxiety disorders and depressive disorders preceding Parkinson’s disease: A case-control study. Mov Disord. 2000;15:669–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Wang S, Mao S, Xiang D, Fang C. Association between depression and the subsequent risk of Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2018;86:186–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Weintraub D, Aarsland D, Chaudhuri KR, Dobkin RD, Leentjens AF, Rodriguez-Violante M, et al. The neuropsychiatry of Parkinson’s disease: advances and challenges. Lancet Neurol. 2022;21:89–102.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Mason NL, Kuypers KPC, Müller F, Reckweg J, Tse DHY, Toennes SW, et al. Me, myself, bye: regional alterations in glutamate and the experience of ego dissolution with psilocybin. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2020:1–9.

  88. Marek GJ Interactions of Hallucinogens with the Glutamatergic System: Permissive Network Effects Mediated Through Cortical Layer V Pyramidal Neurons. In: Halberstadt AL, Vollenweider FX, Nichols DE, editors. Behav. Neurobiol. Psychedelic Drugs, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2018. p. 107-35.

  89. Flanagan TW, Nichols CD Psychedelics and Anti-inflammatory Activity in Animal Models. In: Barrett FS, Preller KH, editors. Disruptive Psychopharmacol., Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2022. p. 229-45.

  90. Kozłowska U, Klimczak A, Wiatr K, Figiel M. The DMT and Psilocin Treatment Changes CD11b+ activated microglia immunological phenotype. 2021:2021.03.07.434103.

  91. Mason NL, Szabo A, Kuypers KPC, Mallaroni PA, de la Torre Fornell R, Reckweg JT, et al. Psilocybin induces acute and persisting alterations in immune status in healthy volunteers: an experimental, placebo-controlled study. Brain Behav Immun. 2023;114:299–310.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Jefsen OH, Elfving B, Wegener G, Müller HK. Transcriptional regulation in the rat prefrontal cortex and hippocampus after a single administration of psilocybin. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf). 2021;35:483–93.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Shao L-X, Liao C, Gregg I, Davoudian PA, Savalia NK, Delagarza K, et al. Psilocybin induces rapid and persistent growth of dendritic spines in frontal cortex in vivo. Neuron. 2021;109:2535–2544.e4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Iovino L, Tremblay ME, Civiero L. Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in Parkinson’s disease: the role of glial cells. J Pharm Sci. 2020;144:151–164.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Johnson KA, Conn PJ, Niswender CM. Glutamate receptors as therapeutic targets for Parkinson’s disease. CNS Neurol Disord - Drug Targets- CNS Neurol Disord. 2009;8:475–91.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Picconi B, Piccoli G, Calabresi P. Synaptic dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. In: Kreutz MR, Sala C, editors. Synaptic Plast. Dyn. Dev. Dis., Vienna: Springer; 2012. p. 553-72.

  97. Tansey MG, Wallings RL, Houser MC, Herrick MK, Keating CE, Joers V. Inflammation and immune dysfunction in Parkinson disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2022;22:657–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Aday JS, Heifets BD, Pratscher SD, Bradley E, Rosen R, Woolley JD. Great Expectations: recommendations for improving the methodological rigor of psychedelic clinical trials. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-022-06123-7.

  99. Lidstone SC. Great Expectations: The Placebo Effect in Parkinson’s Disease. In: Benedetti F, Enck P, Frisaldi E, Schedlowski M, editors. Placebo, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2014. p. 139-47.

  100. Michaels TI, Purdon J, Collins A, Williams MT. Inclusion of people of color in psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: a review of the literature. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18:245.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Hesselgrave N, Troppoli TA, Wulff AB, Cole AB, Thompson SM. Harnessing psilocybin: antidepressant-like behavioral and synaptic actions of psilocybin are independent of 5-HT2R activation in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2021;118:1–7.

  102. Kozlowska U, Nichols C, Wiatr K, Figiel M. From psychiatry to neurology: psychedelics as prospective therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders. J Neurochem. 2021;00:1–20.

  103. Saeger HN, Olson DE. Psychedelic-inspired approaches for treating neurodegenerative disorders. J Neurochem. 2022;162:109–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Read Entire Article